Ejeh Paulinus C
Philosophy Unit,
General Studies Division,
Enugu State University of Science and Technology
paulinus.ejeh@esut.edu.ng
Abstract
The problem of truth together with the theories of truth is an epistemological problem that is
of special interest to philosophers world-wide. This is so because our knowledge of the world
depends largely on the ability to show or prove that bodies of knowledge and our claims are
not just a collection of falsity. Be that as it may, this paper attempts to x-tray and showcase
the Concept of truth in Igbo thought system. It critically highlights the similarities between
the Western concept of truth and the Igbo concept of truth. The paper is of the view that the
correspondence theory of truth is the closest to the nature of truth even though it does not
adequately satisfy or meet up with the requirements needed for an adequate theory of truth.
Also the paper showed that the Igbo concept of truth corresponds with the Western
correspondence theory of truth.
Key words: Truth, Eziokwu /Igbo, Thought, morality,
Introduction
All men by nature desire to know, says Aristotle and this desire to know is the quest for truth.
Since all men desire to know, the African not only desires to know but equally and
persistently seeks and searches for truth. However it is not quite easy to spell out that which
is peculiar about the African quest for truth because Africa is not a homogeneous entity.
There are over fifty countries in Africa made up of more than one thousand ethnic groups
each with its own specific culture. Thus there are certain similarities between one African
culture and another as well as differences between them. This however does not mean that
philosophical activity is not possible among the African people as many Western
philosophers had erroneously believed and defended. In fact, the diversity of African cultures
and languages do indeed enrich philosophical activity in Africa.
Meanwhile, there is no particularization of truth in Africa or elsewhere in the world.
In other words, there is no particular concept or meaning of truth that can be said to apply or
that can represent the whole of African concept of truth. In fact, there is no African concept
of truth, for truth is universal. There cannot be truth for the Africans different from the truth
for the Europeans or Asians. There is only one truth and it is eternal, unchanging and applies
to all irrespective of colour or race. Thus, what is known or referred to as African concept of
truth is nothing but the universal truth exposed by and through the African world view.
Be that as it may, the question “what is truth?” has engaged the human mind in all
ages. Reflections on our own individual experiences reveal how this problem arises in many
ways in our lives. There is no absolute agreement among philosophers as to the correct
account of the concept of truth. One obvious point, however, is that true as it applies to
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statements or propositions should be distinguished from the true in expressions such as true
friend.
To ask what is truth is in fact to ask what it means to say that a proposition is true.
What do we mean when we say that a proposition is true or that it is not true? This question
has been traditionally handled and answered in three or more different ways by philosophers
and each of these answers constitutes a theory about the nature of truth.
Therefore, the task of this paper is to examine the concept and theories of truth in the
light of an African thought system, viz-a-viz the Igbo conception of truth.
Theories of Truth
There are three classical theories of truth, namely the correspondence theory, the coherence
theory, and the pragmatic theory. However, apart from these three main theories, there are
other theories which include the dialectical theory, the redundancy theory, the semantic
theory and the relativistic theory of truth. The major problem posed by these theories of truth
is to determine which of them represents the appropriate or adequate position of truth. In this
paper, we shall concentrate on only four theories of truth, namely the correspondence theory,
the coherence theory, the pragmatic theory and the semantic theory.
The Correspondence Theory
The correspondence theory of truth is the oldest, best known, and perhaps most natural theory
of truth. It states that truth is a correspondence to fact. This theory is said to have originated
from Aristotle, who had maintained that, to say of what is not that it is and what is that it is
not, is false; and that to say that what is that it is and what is not that it is not, is true. Hence
the correspondence theory holds that truth is the correspondence of the mind with reality.1
For instance, if I say that my lecturer has a car, my statement is true if it corresponds with the
actual situation or case outside – that is, if it is a fact that my lecturer actually has a car. But if
my statement does not correspond with the actual situation then my statement is false. In
order to test the truth of an idea or belief we must presumably compare it with the reality in
some sense. However, of all the possible theories of truth, the correspondence theory
connects most directly with the idea that truth is an objective property of statements.
Meanwhile, two main difficulties have been raised against the correspondence theory
of truth. The first is that it has been claimed that the correspondence theory presents a
misleading and overly simple picture of how we determine the truth or falsity of statements.
We do not, and really could not, check our statements one by one against reality. Besides, in
order to make the comparison, we must know what it is that we are comparing, namely, the
belief on the one hand and the reality on the other. Again, do our beliefs agree or correspond
with facts in the sense that they copy or resemble them?
The second is that the correspondence theory operates with the purely formal or nonoperational idea of “checking to see whether P corresponds with reality.” This however, is
not what can actually be done. Therefore, this theory of truth does not adequately satisfy what
the nature and criteria of truth is and should be.
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The Coherence Theory
The coherence theory of truth maintains that “the truth of a proposition must be measured by
its consistency with the whole system of knowledge.”2
In other words, the theory states that a
proposition is true if and only if a proposition is in agreement with other propositions in a
system of propositions such that proposition strengthens the acceptability of the entire
system. Thus a statement is true if it coheres with, supports and strengthens those statements
already known to be true, but if a statement is in conflict with other statements already known
to be true, the statement is then false.
Meanwhile, there are some difficulties with the coherence theory of truth. The first is
that it is more plausible to regard coherence as a necessary condition than it is to regard it as a
sufficient condition for truth. In other words, statements that do not cohere are automatically
excluded from the class of truths, but statements that do cohere are not automatically
included in the class of truths. The second is that we do not (and could not) test for coherence
with all true statements since no one is in possession of all true statements. “Checking to see
whether P coheres with all true statements” is as totally nonoperational as “checking to see
whether p corresponds with reality.” Like the correspondence theory, the coherence theory
also does not meet up with the demand of an adequate meaning and concept of truth.
The Pragmatic Theory
The pragmatist theory of truth holds that a statement or a belief is true if and only if “it
works,” if it allows us to predict certain results, if it allows us to function effectively in
everyday life, and if it encourages further inquiry or helps us lead better lives. Truth is
something relative and has reference to a changing reality; things are never true in themselves
but only in their application to existential situations. In this theory, then, the notion of truth is
replaced by that of verification. Thus an idea is true if it works and leads to beneficial results,
otherwise it is false.3
The Semantic Theory
The semantic theory of truth (also referred to as Minimalist theory) was proposed by Alfred
Taski. The theory makes truth a property of sentences rather than in judgments. According to
the theory, to say that something is true is to make an assertion about a sentence. In other
words, the semantic theory holds that assertions about truth are in a metal-language and apply
to statements of the base language.4
The semantic theory however, lays down the condition which any account of truth
must satisfy. For instance, if I say that “All Nigerians are black’, Taski would say that the
statement is true if and only if “all Nigerians” are really black. In other words, the statement
“all Nigerians are black’ is true if and only if all Nigerians are really black.
Features Which an Adequate Theory of Truth Must Have
According to Bertrand Russell, there are three points to observe in the attempt to discover the
nature of truth. In other words, there are three requisite or features which any theory of truth
must have or fulfill. This includes the following points, “our theory of truth must be such as
to admit of its opposite, falsehood.”5
Russell believes that some philosophers have failed
adequately to satisfy this condition. According to him, these philosophers have rather
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constructed theories according to which all our thinking ought to have been true, and then had
the greatest difficulty in finding a place for falsehood.
The second point is that, beliefs and falsehood are necessary for truth. Hence “it
seems fairly evident that if there were no beliefs there could be no falsehood; and no truth
either, in the sense in which truth is correlative to falsehood.”6
If we imagine a world of mere
matter, there would be no room for falsehood in such a world, and although it would contain
what may be called “facts”, it would not contain any truths, in the sense in which truths are
things of the same kind as falsehoods. In fact, truth and falsehood are properties of beliefs
and statements: hence a world of mere matter, since it would contain no beliefs or statements,
would also contain no truth or falsehood.
The third and last point is that “truth or falsehood of a belief always depends upon
something which lies outside the belief itself”8
. For instance, if I believe that Murtala
Muhammad was murdered, I believe truly, not because of any intrinsic quality of my belief,
which could be discovered by mere examining the belief, but because of an historical event
which happened some decades ago. If I believe that Murtala Muhammad died on his bed, I
believe falsely; no degree of vividness in my belief, or of care in arriving at it, prevents it
from being false again because of what happened long ago, and not because of any intrinsic
property of my belief. Hence, although truth and falsehood are properties of beliefs, they are
properties dependent upon the relations of the beliefs to other things, not upon any internal
quality of the beliefs to other things, not upon any internal quality of the beliefs.
Therefore, in line with what we have said above, in seeking for a theory about the
nature of truth, we must seek a theory which (1) allows truth to have an opposite, namely
falsehood, (2) makes truth a property of beliefs, but (3) makes it a property wholly dependent
upon the relation of the beliefs to outside things.
Meanwhile, apart from the above requisites a theory of truth must have, there are still
other criteria of truth which are the marks by which we know the nature of truth. Such criteria
are coherence and workability. In the past, agreement of majority or indeed mankind was
regarded as a criterion for truth. But today, universal agreement has lost its standing as there
is the possibility of falsehood in a universally agreed issue.
The Concept of Truth in Igbo Thought System
The Igbo, have some words and phrases which they use to express the concept of truth such
as eziokwu. Ezi-Okwu is actually a combination of two words: ezi which means correct,
genuine, right or good; and okwu which means word or speech. Ezi okwu therefore means
literarily good talk, the correct sentence, right word, or the appropriate statement. In other
words eziokwu means the correct response to a question or as Nze rightly pointed out that
“the common understanding, (among the Igbo) is that ‘eziokwu’ – truth is used to represent
utterances (that is, the lack of inner contradictions) that are true.”9
Other phrases associated
with the concept of truth in Igbo thought system is Obughi Eziokwu (it is not Good talk), and
Asi (Lie). Thus among the Igbos, truth means Eziokwu, which literally translates to “good
talk”. For the Igbo, to be is to be true to what one really is. The Igbo puts this ontological
principle in the maxim: Eziokwu Bu Ndu (Truth is life; life is truth). In Igbo, ethicoontological praxis, not only in the moral sense is the utterance of truth an affirmation. In the
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ontological order, the true is the living. Truth is authenticity, (Ugwu ndu). Not to be in the
truth is not to be in life, in dynamism, self-manifestation and the vital energy. It is to die.
Only the true lives. The untrue disappears into the false-hood of non-being.
The opposite of Eziokwu (good talk) is Obughi Eziokwu (it is not good talk), i.e. if
we take the opposite of truth in English to be falsity. Obughi Eziokwu (it is not good talk),
translates cognitively in Igbo, unless there is reason to believe that a person is deliberately
making a falsehood in which case, Obughi Eziokwu (it is not good talk) takes on a moral
undertone. In fact, it now moves from Obughi Eziokwu (it is not good talk) to asi (lies).
When a statement gets to the level of asi (lies), it takes on a purely moral undertone and the
sincerity of the person involved is called to question.
There are degrees of truth among the Igbos. For instance, to say of a statement that
obughi eziokwu (it is not good talk). Is not the same as saying that a statement is asi (lie),
because to say that a statement is asi is to cast aspersions on a person’s moral standard. But to
say that obughi eziokwu is neither the same as eziokwu (good talk) nor is it asi. It is more like
a bridge between eziokwu and asi. It is used usually in a cognitive sense unless it is suspected
that a person’s statement is a deliberate falsehood. This of course brings on the issue of
intention on the part of the person making the statement. But since there is no way of
knowing the intentions of a person for making a particular statement, it is necessary to
assume that the person is using a statement in an innocent sense until proved wrong, in
which case, obughi eziokwu is applied to a person with a moral sense.
The notion of truth is so central and important for the Igbo such that there are a
number of ways in which it is used to capture the concept and real meaning of truth in Igbo
thought system. Consider the following Igbo statements:
‘Ọnye ezi okwu’ – A truthful person or one who is known for truth
‘O kwuru ezi okwu’ – He told the truth or He talked good or
reasonable talk.
Here as already noted, ‘okwu’ means speech or talk in Igbo and is usually preceded or
modified by the word ‘ezi’ which by its very nature form the root word for good, kind, true,
genuine, etc as can be seen in the following examples:
‘Ezi ihe’ – A good thing or something useful.
‘Ezi mmadụ’ – A good person or kind person.
‘Ezi Okwu’ – Good talk or true talk.
‘Ọ bụ ezi?’ – Is it true?
‘Ọ bụ ezi’ – It is true.
In addition to ezi okwu, the Igbo also describe the truth of a statement with the expression Ihe
mere eme or ihe mere, which means what really happened or what happened. For instance the
Igbo would say:
‘Ọ bụ ihe mere eme’ – It is what actually happened
‘Ọ bụghị ihe mere’ – It is not what happened.
‘Ọ bụ gịnị mere? – What happened?
‘Ọ bụ ihe mere eme?’ – Did it really happen?
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In the Igbo thought system, the expression ihe mere or ihe mere eme makes the Igbo concept
of truth clearer and in line with ‘what is the case’, ‘what agrees with reality,’ or as
‘testimony’. Thus ihe mere or ihe mere eme refers to an event which has been accomplished
or perfected. Hence, the expression, ihe mere eme makes truth an empirical fact and not an
intuitional fact. In other words, truth as illustrated by ihe mere eme becomes something that
can be investigated and verified empirically. By this very reason, the Igbo expression ihe
mere eme represents for the Igbo truth as correspondence since what is the case agrees with
what happened in reality. Besides, the Igbo also understand truth in the Aristotelian sense as
rightly noted by Aristotle that, “to say of what is that it is not, or what is not that it is, is false.
While to say of what is that it is, or what is not that it is not, is true.”10 In other words, the
Igbo conceive truth as the conformity of the mind with reality. Hence, for the Igbo, when
what is in the mind conforms or agrees with what is in reality, then that is eziokwu or truth.
In addition to tallying with the correspondence theory of truth, Ihe mere eme can also
be used to maintain the principle of the semantic theory of truth, since the semantic theory of
truth makes truth a property of sentences rather than in judgments. The theory holds that, to
say that something is true is to make an assertion about a sentence. For example, the
statement “The country is bad” is true if and only if the country is really bad, as what is the
case can refer to the content of a propositional sentence agreeing with reality, rather than just
asserting the historicity of what happened.
From the ongoing, the expression Ihe mere eme seems to be more in line with the very
nature of the Igbo concept of truth and is therefore preferred, since it does not exhibit the
apparent ambiguity inherent in the expression ‘Ezi okwu’. This toes the same line with the
western conception of truth in which the correspondence theory is seen as the better
representative of what truth is. Thus, while the expression Ihe mere eme defines what truth is
for the Igbo, ezi okwu gives the criteria to strengthen it. This is exactly the case with the
Western correspondence and coherence theory of truth in which the correspondence theory
defines or explains the meaning of truth while the coherence theory gives the criteria for
truth. Thus, ihe mere eme is strengthened by ezi okwu as can be shown in the example below:
‘Ọ bụ ezi okwu?’ Is that true?
‘Eeh! Ọ bụ ihe mere eme’ Yes! It is what happened.
‘Ezi okwu! Ọ bụ ihe mere?’ Truly! Is this what happened really?
Eeh! ezi okwu, Ọ bụ Ihe mere eme’ In truth, it is what happened.
Attributes of Truth In Igbo Thought System
The Igbo have a number of ways in which the concept of truth is characterized. For instance,
the Igbo would say: Eziokwu dika ehihie (efifie). Truth is like noonday. The implication of
this statement is that truth is self-evident and there is nothing anybody can do to destroy it.
That is why the Igbo say: Anaghị eli eziokwu n’ala meaning that truth cannot be buried in the
ground. Or that ezi okwu dịka afọ ime, adịghị ekpuchi ya aka. Which means that truth is like
pregnancy, even if you cover it, it definitely shows. These expressions portray the
indestructible character of truth in Igbo thought system, for the Igbo believe that no one can
suppress truth even though the Igbo also say: Eziokwu na’elu ilu, meaning that Truth is bitter.
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Equally, the Igbo compare truth with afternoon hence they say ezi okwu dịka ehihie,
which literally translates to ‘truth is like noonday. The moral behind these expressions is that
in any speech event, what is true easily stands out and can neither be hidden nor destroyed
since truth is self- evidential and self-explanatory, and does not require any interpretation or
explication. This is why the Igbo say: A naghị eli ezi okwu n’ala, makana elie ya na la, opute
ome. This literally means that truth cannot be buried in the ground, because, if it is buried, it
will germinate’. Hence the Igbo believe in the indestructibility of truth.
Also, the Igbo strongly believe that ‘truth is harsh to the ears’ as well as that truth is
bitter or hard to swallow, but it must be told. Hence the Igbo say: ezi okwu na-afụ ụfụ na nti
and thatezi okwu na-elu ilu. This expression normally surfaces among the Igbos when there is
an attempt to suppress truth or uncover truth that people would rather want hidden.
Consequently, all traditional societies have a strong moral orientation in their
conception of truth. Truth sustains relationships with God, the deities and their fellow men.
Truth is paramount in Igbo life and they believe it is what gives life to any society. Hence, the
traditional Igbo society is built on truth and the basis of this is trust which is primarily
dependent on the ability of the individual members to tell the truth to one another. It is the
basis of their faith in God and in the people. Truth is the foundation of any Igbo community.
Truth, Morality and the Igbos
It is to be noted that most Igbo words are highly polysemic (have more than one meaning),
and as such one expression could mean several things which can only be made explicit in
context. The same applies to the notion of truth in Igbo, whether such truth be moral or
cognitive or both. For instance, if the Igbo say of something someone has said that obughi
eziokwu (it is not good talk), they do not automatically assume that the statement is
necessarily an asi, (lies) unless they have reason to suspect that the person in question has
consciously and deliberately made a falsehood. For instance, if while in our room with some
friends, the door bell rings, and one of our friends asserts that it is Emeka, another one of the
friends. We may go to the door to ascertain whether it is indeed Emeka; and on discovering
that it is not Emeka, we may say obughi eziokwu (it is not good talk), without meaning to
suggest that our friend has told an asi (a lie). In the Igbo rendition, obughi eziokwu, is truth in
its purely cognitive sense, in this case obughi eziokwu would mean “falsity” in English
language. However, despite the fact that obughi eziokwu is truth in its cognitive sense in
Igbo thought system, it could also mean it is an asi if we have reason to suspect that a person
is consciously and deliberately making falsehood. This brings in a moral aspect. It can also
depend on the receiver of the statement, i.e the sense in which he says of a statement that
obughi eziokwu.
It is often said among the Igbos that morality is intertwined with truth and that is why
for instance, only morally upright men who are sworn to speak the truth are given the ozo
title. Unfortunately, this tradition of giving the Ozo title only to morally upright men is
almost obliterated from the Igbo customs in most of the contemporary Igbo societies. This is
because the Ozo title is no longer conferred only on upright men who are known to be men of
truth and honesty, but also even to men with crooked ways of life, full of dishonesty and
untruthfulness, as long as the one requesting for the title has enough money to spray on the
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people conferring the title. This however does not in any way undermine our already stated
fact that among the Igbos, morality is intertwined with truth. It is on this note that Udefi
rightly observed that “the Igbo would not refer to onye asi (a liar) as knowledgeable and the
reason is that both knowledge and truth are regarded as possessing divine and moral status”.11
The Igbo has various ways of verifying the truth of a claim or event. For according to
Udefi, “it is not enough for the Igbo to see how propositions correspond with facts or the
weight of superior logic of the argument but it is important to consider the person’s omume
(character), that is, his moral standing within the community is paramount.”12 Thus, for the
Igbo, truth verification relies more on first-hand experience or what someone experiences or
sees with his eyes together with what one apprehends cognitively. In other words, the reliable
way of knowing that is regarded as true or eziokwu comes more from what one experiences
or sees and this is why what the Igbo claims to know is what, in the final analysis, is the case
or true.13
Meanwhile, the Igbo use the ọfọ symbol to designate truth and justice as a principle of
life. Hence the Igbo statement:
Ọfọ ka ide ji awa ala
Truth and justice are the content of life
Oji ọfọ anaghị atọ n’ije or Oji ofo g’ana.
The man of truth is never stranded in a journey
In these sayings, the Igbo are emphasizing the centrality of truth in human relationship,
organization and morality. This is further made obvious in the Igbo saying: Ezi okwu bụ ndụ.
Truth is life. Among the Igbos, truth is said to be life itself. Hence truth-being and truthtelling is a test of life and morality. Therefore, for the Igbo, there is life in truth and only a
man of truth has life. On the other hand, a man without truth has “no life in him” and is in
darkness. The commitment to Truth is a fundamental Igbo philosophy without which there
would be neither regard nor respect for human life and dignity.
Evaluation and Conclusion
From our discussion so far, it is clear that the concept of truth as well as that which concerns
the theories of truth is a perennial one that has got no one or universally accepted answer or
solution. However, as we have seen, of all the theories of truth, it is only the correspondence
theory that is closest to the nature of truth. In spite of this fact however, the correspondence
theory does not adequately meet up with the requirement need for an adequate theory of truth.
Again, it is clear that things are well spelt out in the Igbo concept of truth. The Igbo
concept of truth tallies or corresponds with the correspondence theory of truth since it
depends on verification of facts before a statement can be said to be eziokwu, obughi eziokwu
and asi.
However, there are some statements which are not empirically verifiable and this
poses a problem in its understanding in other languages. Any attempt to translate this class of
statement or concepts from one language to another (in this case the Igbo language) is
intrinsically fraught with problems. Meanwhile, it is worth noting that among the Igbos when
you tell someone (especially an elder) that what he said “abughi eziokwu”, (not good talk)
what comes automatically and immediately to the persons mind and even in the mind of the
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listeners is that you are accusing the person of lying. The person in question would reply “so I
am lying then if what I said is not good talk or abughi eziokwu”. It will take a good deal of
explanation to convince the person that you are not necessarily or actually saying that he is
lying (asi) but that you are saying that his statement is false or abughi eziokwu.
We wish to point out here that even though in Igbo thought system, we have the
equivalent elements of the western concept of truth namely, true, false and lie-eziokwu,
obughi eziokwu and asi; in practice, the Igbos pay attention to only two, namely: true and lie –
eziokwu and asi. Falsity or falsehood seems to play a minimal role or even no role at all in the
Igbo concept of truth. That is why when you tell someone that what he says abughi-eziokwu,
you are asking for a quarrel or misunderstanding between you and the person since the person
in question would in effect understand it that you are accusing him of lying. Even when you
try to explain what you mean, bringing in the concept of falsehood, he would still retort, “if
what I said is not eziokwu (good talk), what is it then other than asi (lie)”.
Thus in Igbo society, one is always very wary in using words like obughi eziokwu
especially when talking to or addressing elders or an elder, otherwise, one would be ready to
go through a series of explanations and tutorial undertakings, which in most cases, always fail
to satisfy the mind of the person (the elder) or even cast doubt in his mind with regard to your
attitude towards elders. In other words, he (the elder) might begin to see you as a bad person
or a spoilt brat.
References
1See the Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.2, “Correspondence Theory of Truth”, auth: Arthur
N. Prior, (Macmillan, 1969), p.223.
2W. A. Wallace, The Elements of Philosophy: A Compendium for Philosophers and
Theologians (New York: Alba House, 1977), p.116.
3See the Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol.5, “Pragmatic Theory of Truth”, (Macmillan,
1969), p. 427.
4A. Tarski, “The Semantic Conception of Truth and the Foundations of Semantics” in
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, vol. 4. 1944.
5See Bertrand Russell, The Problem of Philosophy, (Bombay: Oxford University Press,
1992), p. 70.
6Bertrand Russell, p.70.
7Bertrand Russell, 70.
8
Bertrand Russell, 70.
9C. B. Nze., “The Igbo Concept of Truth a Correspondence” in UCHE, a Journal of the
Department of Philosophy, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Vol. 9, (Nsukka: Department of
philosophy, 1994) p.4.
10D.U.Opata, Essays on Igbo world view, (Nsukka: AP-Express Publishers,1998), p.77
11Amaechi Udefi, “The Rationale for an African Epistemology: A Critical Examination of the
Igbo Views on Knowledge, Belief, and Justification” in Canadian Social Science Vol. 10,
No. 3, 2014, p. 115.
12Udefi, A., p.115.
13Udefi A, p.115.